Dhangad (scavenging cleaner)

Dhangad (scavenging cleaner) a low caste socially and religiously designated for handling dead bodies and other unclean jobs. Locally, they are also called methar (scavenger), bhuimali (sweeper) or jhadudar (dustman). Dhangad literally means farmer or raiser of livestock. The two components of the word are dhan (paddy) and gad (husking hole). Initially, dhangads lived in the wide grazing land along the Karha valley. Their chief livelihood was farming and rearing livestock. Later, they left South India and spread to different parts of the subcontinent. With migration, their profession also changed. Eventually, they left farming and livestock breeding and took up the jobs of cleaning dirt and rubbish.
In the caste system based on the Hindu religion, there were certain very depressed lower group professionals who lived in different parts of ancient India and Bengal and continued to survive in later periods. Such groups include leatherworkers, blacksmiths, potters, fishermen, hunters, weavers, cremators, and gypsies. dhangads were placed as the pancham (fifth) class after the top four classes of brahman, ksatriya, vaishya and shudra. They were regarded as 'low-born' and were treated as untouchables. Despite the fact that in the early twentieth century, Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) renamed low-born people, including dhangads, as Harijans (children of God), the situation had not changed much. Veteran political leader B R Ambedkar (1891-1956), himself a low-born, could not succeed either, despite his efforts to improve the social condition of the Harijans.
After the formation of the Dhaka Committee in 1830 and the Dhaka Municipality in 1864, the city authorities undertook the work of cleaning along with various other responsibilities of city life. As part of this arrangement, dhangads got the job of cleaning night soil and dirt on the basis of daily wages or as salaried labourers. At later stages, dhangads or methars were employed in other towns of Bangladesh too.
dhangads migrating to Bangladesh from different parts of India can be divided into three categories: Madraji, Kanpuri and Nagpuri. They have some differences in lifestyle and social system. The spoken language of the Madrajis is either Telegu or Tamil. The Nagpuris and Kanpuris speak Hindi or a mixture of Hindi and Urdu. The traditional dresses of dhangad men include dhutis, turbans and sleeveless coats. But nowadays they put on lungis, trousers, and shirts. Women wear saris and blouses. As ornaments, they use earrings, girdles, necklaces, bangles, crescent necklaces, nose-pins, chains, heavy metal rings etc. Male dhangads draw tattoos of snakes, bears, lions, tigers and bulls on their bodies as symbols of bravery. Women, on the other hand, draw tattoos of flowers of various kinds on their bodies. Dhangads are fond of pork and wine. Many dhangads rear pigs for profit.
Dhangads are not very concerned about education, development and welfare. Some welfare organisations for them were formed by some conscious and sympathetic persons. In 1873, the Satyasadhak Samaj (Association of Truth Seekers) was formed in Maharashtra, India. In 1892, the Madras Adi Dravid Janasabha (Madras People's Society of Aborigine Dravidians) was founded. The All India Anti-Untouchables League was established in 1932 at Mahatma Gandhi's initiative. This organisation came to be known as the Harijan Sebak Sangha (Association for serving Harijans). At the initiative of B R Ambedkar, a labour organisation for dhangads was formed in 1936. The Scheduled Castes Federation was founded in 1942. In Dhaka, the Dhaka District Dhangad Union was formed in 1936 and the Harijan Sebak Samiti in 1941. [Anupam Hayat]

TCB (Trading Corporation of Bangladesh)

TCB (Trading Corporation of Bangladesh) an autonomous state trading organisation under the Ministry of Commerce. After liberation in December 1971, Bangladesh inherited a devastated economy, a disrupted system of communication, and damaged ports. This necessitated urgent import of essential consumer goods and industrial raw materials. In this background, TCB was created in 1972 by the Presidential Order No. 68. To start with, it took over all the assets, liabilities and manpower of the East Pakistan offices of the Trading Corporation of Pakistan. TCB's main functions were: to import commodities according to the requirements of the government; to distribute the imported commodities at fair prices to keep the market stable; to create overseas markets for traditional and non-traditional products of Bangladesh and export those products; to keep a watch on the supply and price situation of the essential goods; and to engage in trading and related activities as directed by the government.
TCB is run by a board composed of the chairman (the chief executive) and three directors. In 1996, the government approved for it a new structure with a manpower of 714 as against the earlier manpower of 1,336. It has four departments: administration, finance, trading and sale/distribution, movement of goods and clearing/forwarding and storage. TCB secretary heads the administration while the directors head the other departments. TCB head office is located at Karwan Bazar in Dhaka. It has regional offices at Dhaka, Chittgong, Khulna and Rajshahi and a branch office at Barisal. Owing to the operation of the open market policy since the 1990s, the scope of TCB's state trading has greatly been squeezed reducing its manpower and the number of its offices.
Since its inception TCB has been playing an important role in rehabilitation and development of the country's economy, industry and commerce. In 1972-73, it imported 63 commodities including cement, milk food, textiles, yarn, sugar, corrugated iron sheets, vehicles, pig iron, oil seeds, medicines, coconut oil, tyres, tubes and bicycles. That year TCB's share of the total imports was 24.84%. Under open market policy its imports were greatly reduced and at present, its share of imports came down to a mere 0.3%. Its present imports are limited to salt, explosives and timber.
At times of crisis in imports, TCB often acted as the savior. In emergencies it imports onion, lentils, salt, dry chilies, dates, ginger and medicines. During the period from July 1972 to June 1998, TCB imported goods worth Tk 19,923.7 million and distributed them through its appointed dealers, agents, its sale centres and licensed persons or organisations. During that period, it earned a substantial amount of foreign exchange by exporting jute, jute goods, molasses, tea, hides and skins, leather goods, readymade garments, urea, frozen fish, handicraft and fine rice. TCB initiated export of Bangladeshi readymade garments in 1975-76. In due course it became a major foreign exchange earner for the country. It participated in many international export fairs and exhibitions and earned prizes and awards. In 26 years of its operation since its creation, TCB earned profit in 22 years and suffered losses in four years.[Anupam Hayat]

Film, Feature In the 1990s

Film, Feature In the 1990s, on an average, 80 feature films were released in Bangladesh every year. Investment in the industry was also colossal and everyday, more than a million people viewed pictures in about 1,500 cinema halls of the country. Innumerable directors, artists, craftsmen and workers are involved in this industry. With the assistance of the government, the Film Development Corporation (FDC) and the film archive were set up earlier and funds were provided in grants and awards. A few films of Bangladesh have received awards and appreciation in international fairs, festivals and competitions. In about last fifty years, the film industry of Bangladesh has developed its own identity.
Historical background The history of films is not very old. About 100 years ago, on 28 December of 1895, two brothers, Auguste Lumiere (1862-1954) and Louis Lumiere (1864-1948), arranged the first successful commercial bioscope show. Just after six months of this event, a representative of the Lumiere brothers held a demonstration of the bioscope in Watson Hotel of Bombay on 7 July 1896. Bioscopes became familiar in calcutta towards the end of that year. The weekly dhaka prakash published a news on the first bioscope show in dhaka held on 17 April 1898 in Crown Theatre (now extinct) at Patuatuli of Dhaka sadarghat area. The show was organised by the Bedford Bioscope Company.
Short films shown by the company included episodes of Queen Victoria's Jubilee Procession, the War between Greece and Turkey, the Coronation of the Russian Czar, documentary shots of the three hundred feet jump of Princess Diana, lions and elephants in entertaining games, sports in snowfall in Britain, roads and underground railway of France, and comedy picture such as the Mad Barber in Shaving Action. The entrance fees varied between half a rupee and three rupees. Later, bioscope shows were organised in many places of Bengal such as Bogjuri village of manikganj, the Bungalow of the subdivisional officer of bhola, the auditorium of jagannath college of Dhaka, the palace of the bhawal estate, Palong of faridpur, and victoria park and ahsan manzil of Dhaka. Regular bioscope shows began in a jute godown at Armanitola of Dhaka in 1913-14, following which a permanent theatre hall (the Picture House, later known as Shabistan) was established at that place. This is the first cinema hall of Bangladesh.
Hira Lal Sen (1866-1917) of Bogjuri village in manikganj district formed the first bioscope company in Calcutta in 1898 and named it the Royal Bioscope Company. Hira Lal was also the producer of the first film of undivided Bengal. He filmed episodes from dramas like Sita Ram, Ali Baba, Dol Lila, Bhramar, and Hariraj Budha and showed them in February 1901 at the Classic Theatre of Calcutta. He also produced documentary films, advertisement pictures and newsreels.
The first complete feature film (silent) of the sub-continent, Raja Harish Chandra, was released in 1913. Its director was Dadabhai Falke. In Calcutta the Madan Theatre Company began to produce films in 1916. Under the initiative of the company the first Bangla silent movie Biswa Mangal was released on 8 November 1919. Though Jatish Banerjee (Rustamji Dutiwalla, according to many) was the director of this film, the famous director-producer of a later period, Priya Nath Ganguli, son of the manager of the dhaka nawab estate, was the man behind the screen. In 1921, Dhirendra Nath Ganguli, the deputy collector of barisal, produced a film named Bilat Ferat (The Man who Returned from England) and himself acted in the film.
In 1927-28, a group of young men of the Nawab family of Dhaka took the initiative to produce films. They produced Sukumari, a silent movie of four reels. The film was directed by Ambuj Prasanna Gupta, a prominent drama worker and an instructor in physical education of jagannath college. In the film, Khaja Nasrullah played the role of the hero and Syed Abdus Sobhan acted as the heroine.
After the success of Sukumari, the young men of the Nawab family set up Dhaka East Bengal Cinematograph Company and produced a full-length silent movie titled The Last Kiss directed by Ambuj Gupta. Khaja Azad did the camera work. Khaja Ajmal, Khaja Adil, Khaja Akmol, Khaja Shahed, Khaja Nasrullah and Shailen Roy alias Tona Babu acted in different roles in the film. The actresses were Lolita alias Buri (heroine), Charu Bala, Deba Bala alias Devi and Harimati. The first three of these actresses were picked up from brothels. The director himself composed the Bangla and English subtitles of the film and Andalib Shadani of the university of dhaka composed the Urdu subtitles. In 1931, The Last Kiss was released in Mukul (now Azad) cinema hall. Distinguished historian Dr ramesh chandra majumdar, Professor of Dhaka University, inaugurated the premier show of the film.
National poet kazi nazrul islam had a significant role in the history of films of undivided Bengal. In 1931, he was a Sur Bhandari (music director) of Madan Theatres, a renowned film making company of Calcutta. Later, he worked as film director, music director, singer, music composer, actor and storywriter. In 1934, he produced a film Dhruba jointly with Satyendra Nath Dey. He formed BT Pictures, named after of Shere-e-Bangla ak fazlul huq in 1941. Following Kazi Nazrul Islam, some brave Muslim personalities demonstrated the courage to overcome religious and social barriers and became involved in films. Noted among them were abbasuddin ahmed, Himadri Chowdhury alias Obaid-ul-Huq, Kiron Kumar alias fateh lohani, Swapan Kumar alias Kazi Khaleque, Udayan Chowdhury alias Ismail Mohammad, Banani Chowdhury alias Begam Anowara, Abdul Ahad, Nazir Ahmad, Inam Ahmad, Baby Islam and Q M Zaman. Himadri Chowdhury produced and directed Dukhey Jader Jiban Gada (the distressed people) in 1946 and Udayan Chowdhury produced Manusher Bhagaban (God of the People) in 1947. Both of them were sent to prison for the 'revolutionary' content of their films. After the partition of Bengal in 1947, film workers of Calcutta migrated to Dhaka and made active contributions in laying the foundation of the film industry in East Pakistan.
After 1947, when Dhaka became a new centre of cultural activities and many persons and institutions tried to produce, and distribute films and setup studios. The government of Pakistan asked Nazir Ahmed, a radio personality, to produce a documentary film. Accordingly, He produced In Our Midst, the first documentary film made in East Pakistan, in collaboration with the experts of Calcutta.
The language movement and the killing of some activists by the government police in February 1952 made the Bengali people more conscious of their rights. Along with the political, economic and administrative extortions of the West Pakistanis, cultural extortion was also in practice. In about two years after the movement of 1952, Shahidul Alam, abdul jabbar khan, Kazi Nuruzzaman and others established Iqbal Films. Dr. Abdus Salek, Dalil Ahmad, Azizul Huq, Dudu Mia, poet jasimuddin, Kazi Khaleque, Sarwar Hossain and others established Co-operative Film Makers Limited for production of films. The government formed a Film Unit under the Public Relations Department for making publicity films. Efforts were initiated to set up a studio and a laboratory at Tejgaon in Dhaka. The documentary film Salamat was produced in the Film Unit under the directorship of Nazir Ahmad (1954). In 1955, work on Mukh O Mukhosh, the first feature film of Iqbal Films began under the directorship of Abdul Jabbar Khan. The film was released on 3 August 1956. The Co-operative Filmmakers produced a short film Appayan under the directorship of Sarwar Hossain. In June 1955, the government-owned film studio commenced operations at Tejgaon.
On 3 April 1957, the East Pakistan Film Development Corporation (EPFDC) was set up with the passage of a bill in the East Pakistan Provincial Legislative Assembly. The establishment of FDC laid the foundation of the film industry in the province. After the facilities of FDC were set up, films have been released regularly every year since 1959. Before this date, cinema halls of the province used to show only films imported from India, West Pakistan, USA, United Kingdom, Russia, Italy and other countries. Following the establishment of the FDC, some more studios like, Popular Studio (Pagla), Bari Studio (Tejturi Bazar), and Bengal Studio (Tikatuli) were set up.
Different streams have been noticed in the history of films of Bangladesh. The films produced in the 1950s and early 1960s reflect a conception of a beautiful and pure life. Later, producers began to make films in Urdu or films based on folk tales for commercial reasons. Chanda, produced in Urdu by Ehtesham and Rupban based on folklore and produced by Salahuddin, represent those two distinct streams.
The history based Nawab Sirajuddowla (1967) of khan ataur rahman and mass movement based Jiban Thekey Neya (1970) of zahir raihan were produced during a period when East Pakistan was in a politically volatile situation. The war of liberation inspired producers to make films of a new type. The first film of the new series was produced by Zahir Raihan. During the liberation war, he made and produced Stop Genocide and some short films. alamgir kabir produced a short film titled Liberation Fighters. Based on the liberation war, Chashi Nazrul Islam made the first full-length film Ora Egaro Jan (The Eleven of Them) in 1972.
Films of the early 1970s contained scenes of combat, suspense, cheap romance and sex, as well as dances and songs, and farcical humour. Many local films imitated ideas and episodes from foreign films, all with commercial purposes. The trend continued till 1990s, when the film industry started facing competition from movies offered by satellite tv channels.
Organisations of film industries in Bangladesh include private sector institutions like the chalachitra sangsad created in 1963, and the Dhaka Film Institute (1969), and public sector establishments such as the Bangladesh Film Institute (1978), the film archive (1978), the National Film Awards and Grant Fund (1975).
Present situation Although the film industry of the country is now producing more films per year than it did in the past, there has been little qualitative improvement. The country produced only one film in 1956. In the 1960s, the number of films released per year averaged 20, which rose to 90 in the 1990s. The condition of the industry in the country, however, is far from satisfactory. Use of VCR and VCD and increased access to satellite TV channels, home screening, and computer CDs are making films available at home. People, especially educated ones, now avoid going to cinema halls. To draw general public to cinema halls, many film producers are now making films with outrageous stories and scenes of violence, sexuality, and tomfoolery. Films with good plots and artistic excellence suitable for export to foreign market have become very rare.
The cost of producing films has increased manifold at present. Due to technical reasons, black and white films are not produced now. The money required in making an average quality colour film of 14 thousand feet is about Tk 6.5 million. Nevertheless, viewing film is still the most accessible and a cheap form of recreation for many.
Notable films Filmmakers of Bangladesh have produced many notable films. Some of these films are based on historic events and patriotic themes while others deal with real life situations. Among the films of these types are the following: Asia (1960) of Fateh Lohani, Kakhono Asheni (1961), Kancher Deyal (1963), Sangam (1964), Anwara (1966) and Jiban Thekey Neya (1970) of Zahir Raihan, Surya Snan (1962), Je Nadi Maru Pathey (1961) and Dharapat (1964) of Salahuddin, Anek Diner Chena (1964), Nawab Sirajuddowla (1967), Soye Nadia Jagey Pani (1967) and Abar Tora Manush Ha (1973) of Khan Ataur Rahman, E Desh Tomar Amar (1959) of Ehtesham, Sutarang (1964), Kagajer Nawka (1966), Ayna O Abashista (1967), Arunodoyer Agnishakkhi (1972), Bashundhara (1977) and Dumurer Phul (1978) of Shubash Dutta, Nadi o Nari (1965) of Sadeque Khan, Shahid Titumir (1968) of Ibne Mijan, Dhire Bahey Meghna (1973), Surya Kanya (1975), Shimana Periyei (1977), Rupali Saikat (1979), Mohana (1982) and Parinita (1986) of Alamgir Kabir, Ora Egaro Jan (1972), Sangram (1973), Debdas (1982), Chandranath (1984), Shubhada (1986) and Hangar Nadi Grenade (1998) of Chashi Nazrul Islam, Nayan Moni (1975), Golapi Ekhan Treney (1979) and Bhat Dey (1983) of Amjad Hossain, Megher Anek Rang (1976) of Harunur Rashid, Alor Michhil (1974) and Lathial (1976) of Mita, Surya Dighal Badi (1979) of Seikh Niamat Ali and Masihuddin, Dahan (1985) of Seikh Niamat Ali, Ashikhita (1978) and Chhutir Ghanta (1989) of Azizur Rahman, Nolok (1978) of Shibli Sadique, Titas Ekti Nadir Nam (1973) of Hrittik Ghatak, Palanka (1976) of Rajen Tarafdar, Lalan Fakir (1973) and Lal Shabujer Pala of Syed Hasan Imam, Sareng Bou (1978) of Abdullah Al Mamun, Suprabhat (1976) of Kabir Anwar, Lal Kajal (1983) of Matin Rahman, Pension (1985) of Rafiqul Bari Chowdhury, Shankha Nil Karagar (1974) of Mostafizur Rahman, Aguner Parash Mani (1995) of Humayun Ahmad, Poka Makader Ghar Bashati (1996) of Akhtaruzzaman, and Dukhai (1997) of Morshedul Islam. Notable commercial films are Chanda (1962) and Chandni (1991) of Ehtesham, Rupban (1995) of Salahuddin, Mala (1965) of Mostafiz, Sat Bhai Champa (1968) of Dilip Shom, Arun Barun Kiran Mala (1968) of Khan Ataur Rahman, Mlian (1964) of Rahman, Abujh Man (1972) and Maina-Mati (1969) of Kazi Jahir, Eto Tuku Asha (1969) of Mita, Rang Baj (1973) of Jahirul Huq, Challenge (1983) of A J Mintu, Keyamat Thekey Keyamat (1992) of Sohanur Rahman Sohan, Beder Meye Josna (1989) of Tozammel Huq Bakul, Dost-Dushman (1977) of Dewan Nazrul, Omar Sharif (1980) of Delwar Jahan Jhantu, Sawdagar (1981) of F Kabir Chowdhury, Veja Chokh (19887) of Shibli Sadiq, Tomakey Chai (1996) and Nayan Mani (1998) of Matin Rahman, Gunahgar (1978) of Sohel Rana, Bishwa Premik (1996) of Shahidul Islam Khokon, Sagarika (1998) of Badal Khondoker and Ranga Bou (1998) of Mohammad Hossain.
Noted film personalities Famous film producers and makers of Bangladesh during the period before its independence include Abdul Jabbar Khan, Fateh Lohani, Ehtesham, Salahuddin, Mahiuddin, Zahir Raihan, Khan Ataur Rahman, Sadeque Khan, Subhas Dutta, and Kamal Ahmed. Some of them produced excellent films after the independence also. Other quality producers and filmmakers were Alamgir Kabir, Amjad Hossain, Chashi Nazrul Islam, Abdus Samad, Sheikh Niamat Ali, Badal Rahman, Shibli Sadiq, Kazi Hayat, Matin Rahman and Morshedul Islam. Famous actors and actresses include Fateh Lohani, Khan Ataur Rahman, Purnima Sen, Sumita, Inam Ahmad, Kazi Khaleque, Binoy Biswas, Narayan Chakravarty, Mehfuz, Anwar Hossain, Saifuddin, Rahman, Sabnam, Rosy, Sujata, Ajim, Razzaque, Kabari, Shaokat Akbar, Anwara, Shabana, Suchanda, Babita, Rozina, Khalil, Ashish Kumar Loha and Sucharita.
Film awards A good number films have been awarded prizes at home and abroad for creativity, aesthetic form and content, and for screenplays that reflect the realities of life and society and for their humane values. Many films produced in Bangladesh have drawn the attention of film lovers of foreign countries. Documentary films top the list of such films. A documentary film, The Antiques of Pakistan, got a diploma in the international film festivals of Berlin and Tokyo in 1954. Documentary film One Acre of Land got diploma in the Venice Film Festivals in 1957. Chittagong Hill Tracts was shown in the film fairs of Berlin, Cannes and Rome in 1957 and was awarded a prize at Rome. Jago Hua Savera (Urdu) was the first feature film to receive international award. Directed by A J Kardar and based on life of the fishermen, this film got the second prize in the Moscow International Film Festival in 1959. In different competitions, the film received 11 awards in all. The film was shown in Homer Theatre and Film Institute of London, Flaherty Foundation of USA, and in the Seminar of South California University in 1959. In the same year, the film was sent on invitation to participate in the Oscar competition in the foreign language department. In 1965, Sutarang directed by Subhas Dutta received the second prize in the Asian Film Festival held at Frankfurt.
In 1967, Ayna o Abashista of Subhash Dutta received a prize in the Moscow Film Festival. In 1968, Abirbhab of Subhash Dutta got the prize of the queen of Combodia in a film festival held at Phnom Penh. In the international film festival held in Moscow in 1979, Dumurer Phul of Subhash Dutta got special award in the children's section. In 1980, Surya Dighal Badi directed by Mahiuddin Shaker and Sheikh Niamat Ali got the third prize in the 29th international film festival held at Mannheim of West Germany. The Catholic and the Protestant Jury Committee also rewarded the picture for its human appeal. The Federation of International Films Associations also awarded a prize to Surya Dighal Badi. In 1986, Dahan directed by Sheikh Niamat Ali got an award in the Karlovy Vary Film Festival.
Chitrakash, a weekly newspaper of Dhaka, first introduced film awards in East Pakistan in 1959. The government of Pakistan introduced the President's Medal in 1960. In that year Asia directed by Fateh Lohani received the President Award as the best film. The award was later discontinued. The Pakistan Film Festival was held at Dhaka in August 1965. Prizes awarded in the festival were for best production, direction, story, screenplay, dialogue, music, photography, acting, editing and composition of songs. That year Kacher Deyal, written, produced and directed by Zahir Raihan, was awarded the Best Film award. The film was also given award for best dialogue (Zahir Raihan), editing (Enamul Huq), sound recording (M A Jahur), music direction (Khan Ataur Rahman), acting in the main female role (Sumita) and also in a special female role (Asia Ali). Others given awards were Khan Ataur Rahman (for composing music in Surya Snan), Salahuddin (for screenplay of Surya Snan), Syed Hasan Imam (actor in Anek Diner Chena), Subhash Dutta (side role in Talash and Milan), Rahman (Certificate of Honour for good acting in Milan).
The first organisation to introduce film awards in Bangladesh after liberation was the Bangladesh Chalachitra Samiti (Bangladesh Films Association). 'Creative films with social commitment' was the motto of the organisation and the symbol used in its awards was the Royal Bengal Tiger. The first award was given for films of 1972 and 1973 in categories like best production, direction, story, screenplay, dialogue, songs, acting (in the main male and female roles as well as in male and female side roles), camera work, music, playback voice (male and female), editing and sound recording. Documentary films of special importance, films initiating new or alternative trends and/or considered special under reasonable grounds were also included in the competition for the awards. The association awarded prizes regularly up to 1988. After a break of 7 years, the awards were reintroduced in 1995 but later, they became irregular again. In 1978, another award was introduced in memory of Syed Muhammad Parvez, the editor of the Chitrali, and one of the founders of the Bangladesh Film Association. This award was given for special contributions to cine journalism and writings on films.
The government of Bangladesh started the annual National Film Awards ceremony in 1975. Prizes include cash money, certificate of appreciation, and a metal sculpture of a woman holding a pitcher in the lap. At the beginning, prizes were awarded in 19 categories, but their number was raised to 21 categories in 1992. The categories included the best film of the year, direction, story, screenplay, dialogue, song, best actor and actress in the main role, best actor and actress in the side role, music director, singer (male and female), camera work (black and white and colour), editing, sound recording, art direction and child artist. An award was also given to the best short film of the year.
Bangladesh Film Producers' Association introduced film awards in 1991. Moreover, other associations and non-government organisations have also introduced film awards and are giving prizes in different categories. [Anupam Hayat]

Film Studio

Film Studio an outfit with various technical facilities for making a motion picture. Although filmmaking began in laboratories, its subsequent growth and progress depended on studios. A studio is equipped to handle the various stages of filmmaking including shooting, dubbing, recording, editing, processing and printing. Thomas Alva Edison established the world's first film studio 'Blackmaria' in 1892. The first film studios of the subcontinent were built in the early 1920s in Bombay, Madras, calcutta and Lahore. The first studio in Calcutta was built in 1915-16 at the initiative of Madan Theatre. Another studio was built in Calcutta in 1930 by New Theatres. After Partition of Bengal in 1947, the first studio in dhaka, Finaka Studio and Laboratories, was built in 1954-55 at Tejgaon at the initiative of the East Bengal government. In 1957, the government established the East Pakistan Film Development Corporation with studio facilities. Later, some other studios were set up on private initiative.
The studio at FDC In 1957, the East Pakistan Assembly enacted a law that enabled the establishment of the Film Development Corporation (FDC) under the ministry of information. An eight-member board representing various government and non-government organisations was formed to run the FDC. The secretary of the ministry of information was its ex-officio chairman and its managing director was its chief executive. The corporation now has directors to head administration and finance, production, and engineering divisions. At present, it has a manpower of 450.
The main functions of the corporation are: to provide loans to individuals or organisations to set up studios for film production; to build its own studios and to rent out the facilities to film makers; to run research programmes in the field of cinematography; and to import films, raw materials etc.
FDC has 9 shooting floors, 12 shooting units, 3 sound theatres, a laboratory for processing colour and black and white films, 15 editing machines, optical machines, movie cameras, lighting facilities, back projection machines, vans, generators etc. It participates in producing and distributing films, arranging training courses, searching for new talents, organising film festivals and seminars, selecting films for international festivals, serving on the film censor board and on the committee for film codes, granting committees, and arranging publications.
FDC is the heart of the country's cinematography industry. At the beginning, 4/5 full-length feature films were produced in a year with the help of its facilities but the figure has now gone up to 90/92. So far about 2,500 feature films made with FDC facilities have been released. A few of these films have won prizes and accolades at international film festivals in Moscow, Tashkent, Frankfurt, Pnom Penh and Mannheim.
In 1980, the department of films and publications of the ministry of information set up a full-fledged colour laboratory at Circuit House Road, Dhaka to produce newsreels, documentaries and short feature films to publicise government activities, development projects and family planning campaigns.
Other studios There are two private-sector studios in Dhaka with facilities for producing films. Of them, the Bengal Motion Pictures Studio Ltd was established in 1969 at Rose Garden on K M Das Lane in Tikatuli. The Rose Garden was an old house of a zamindar. The house was on eight bighas of land with a large pond and very picturesque flowerbeds and plants. In 1972, the studio's founder Bazlur Rahman assumed sole ownership but subsequently, it changed hands several times. This studio is equipped mainly for shooting, dubbing and limited editing.
The second private studio, Bari Studio, is located at East Tejturi Bazar in the karwan bazaar area. Its founder M A Bari first established a studio, Eastern Theatre, at Maghbazar in the 1960s. After it was closed down under government orders, he set up Bari Studio at the present location in 1970. It has facilities for shooting, dubbing and editing. The third private sector studio of the country is at Pagla in Fatulla of narayanganj district. It was established in 1965 by three pioneer film workers, abdul jabbar khan, A Awal and Musharraf Husain Choudhury on 16 bighas of land containing a large pond, a house, gardens and large number of trees. It has facilities for shooting, editing and processing black and white films. Three other studios New Star Studio, Sinetan Studio and Sruti Recording Studio are also now operating in Dhaka. A few other organisations have grown up in the city with facilities for video filming. [Anupam Hayat]

Film Censorship

Film Censorship the act of examining films and removing parts which are considered offensive and unacceptable under government laws, rules and regulations and orders and instructions. In the process, some films may be banned and not permitted for release at all. In Bangladesh, film censorship in effect is an act of according permission to films for release and the process is guided by the Bangladesh Censorship of Film Rules 1977. The basis of these rules is the Cinematography Act 1918, amended and modified by the government of Pakistan and after 1971, by the government of Bangladesh. The aim of the Cinematography Act 1918 was to ensure that films were showed only after a certificate of approval issued by an appropriate authority and to ensure the security of the audience in the cinema halls. Under the provisions of the Act, Film Censor Councils were set up at calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1920. These councils used to censor the films produced in British India and imported from foreign countries and issued certificates of release. After creation of Pakistan in 1947, Censor Councils were set up at Lahore, Karachi and dhaka. In 1963, the government of Pakistan enacted the Censorship and Film Act and framed the Censorship of Films Rules. Under the provisions of the Rules, the Central Film Censor Board and the Provincial Censor Boards for two provinces of Pakistan were constituted.
After the independence of Bangladesh, the Film Censor Act of 1963 was amended by President's Order No. 41/1972 and the Film Censor Rules were introduced. These Rules were amended by an Ordinance in 1982. In 1977, the Film Censor Rules were set aside and the government framed the Bangladesh Censorship of Film Rules, following which the film censor board was set up in Dhaka.
The Censorship of Films Rules 1977 contain definitions and deal with composition of the Film Censor Board and its tenure and responsibilities, constitution of the Appeal Committee, principles for the examination of films, fees for 35 millimeter and 16 millimeter films, examination of trailers and of films brought by foreign missions, grounds for removal of parts of the films, different kinds of official forms, and exemption of fees for educative films. In the light of the Rules, the ministry of information issued 8 instructions for the examination of films on 16 November1985. The instructions spell out the considerations under which the films shall not be granted certificate of release.
According to the first six instructions, films should not (1) contain anything opposed to the independence of Bangladesh and its integrity, sovereignty, law and order, value systems, social customs and traditions and the country's defense and security forces; (2) instigate enmity between Bangladesh and friendly foreign countries or incite hatred among the nations; (3) hurt the religious beliefs and sentiments of the people or cause communal enmity; (4) incite unethical sinful acts and debauchery, defile the established sense of morality and sanctity or have scenes of nudity, rape, sexual acts, obscene movements of limbs and vulgar dresses, kisses and acts of embracing; (5) have scenes of cruelty, serious oppression, repulsiveness and brutality; (6) show serious criminal activities that incite enthusiasm in the minds of the people, draw sympathy for the criminals and create an impression that such acts are recognised in the society. The seventh instruction says that no copycat film, indigenous or foreign, shall be given a certificate of release. Finally, the eighth instruction says that films which encourage the practice of dowry shall not be given certificate of release.
Between 1972 and 1996, about two hundred indigenous and foreign films have been proscribed in Bangladesh on different grounds. However, the certificate of release was ultimately issued to all the indigenous films. Films titled Agni Pariksha and Bashar Ghar were proscribed on the allegation of copying and Nadir Nam Madhumati and Ammajan were proscribed due to political and social reasons. All these films were later given certificates of release. The permission for the public show of many films was suspended on the allegation that they had obscene 'cut pieces'. But cut scenes inserted in them after the accord of release certificates and such films were confiscated from cinema houses. Later, the suspension was withdrawn under the coverage of special powers. Almost all the proscribed films were of poor standard and reflected perverted tastes. The Film Censor Board however, denied certificates of release to two quality films, Jalsha Ghar of satyajit ray and Jukti Takko Gappo of Rhittik Ghatak, under 'special considerations'. [Anupam Hayat]

Film Censor Board

Film Censor Board established in 1978 as an organisation for the review and scrutiny of the films and for issuing certificates for their release. The board has its permanent office at dhaka and it discharges its responsibility by following the laws and principles of film censorship. The secretary, ministry of information is the ex-officio chairman of the board. Other members of the board include representatives (one from each) of the ministry of home affairs, the ministry of foreign affairs, prime minister's secretariat and the Federation of Bangladesh Chambers of Commerce and Industry (fbcci), managing director of the Bangladesh Film Development Corporation, director general of the film archive, a joint secretary of the ministry of information, a woman member of parliament, two journalists, a professor of the Department of Mass Communication and Journalism of the university of dhaka, a film actress, the president of the Film Producers-Distributors Association, a film personality, a cultural personality, a lawyer, a woman teacher and a film director. All the members are nominated by the government. The government also determines the number of members on the board, which was 20 in 1998. The board has a vice-chairman, a secretary, six inspectors and other employees for running its administrative affairs.
At the time of selecting films, the members of the board follow the principles laid down in paragraph 13 of the Film Censorship Rules framed in 1977 and take into consideration the law and order situation in the country and the society, international relationships, religious sentiments of the people, and a moral code of ethics. The board issues certificate with 'Universal' marking to films eligible for exhibition to all. In consideration of the conservative social and cultural environment of the country, the board does not issue A or X marked certificates for films meant for adult viewers. In case anybody applies for release of such films, he is not given the certificate and the exhibition of the film is prohibited. For example, during the period between 1997 and 1999, the board did not issue release certificate to a domestic film Dekh Tamasha and two foreign films, Silencer and Savage Streets because of their obscenity and repulsiveness. The filmmakers, producers or distributors have the right to file appeal suits against the decision of the Film Censor Board to a special committee constituted for this purpose. The Appeal Committee, after re-examination of the concerned film(s) submits reports along with its recommendations to the government and the decision of government is sent to the Film Censor Board for implementation.
[Anupam Hayat]

Cine Club

Cine Club (Chalachitra Sangsad) Cinema is not merely a medium entertainment; it chronicles history, tradition, art and culture, society and life itself. Like literature, music, plays, painting and dance, it too can portray life and aesthetics. Its artistic and aesthetic potentials created a distinctive genre of viewers outside its commercial purview. These viewers felt motivated to establish film societies. Their objectives are to provide organisational support to enhance the artistic quality of films, create awareness about the value of art and promote conscious efforts to produce quality films.
The first such club was the Cine Club du France of the 1920s. This was followed by The Film Society of 1925 in London, the Film Society of Bombay in 1942, the Film Society of Sri Lanka in 1945, the Calcutta Film Society in 1946 and the Bengal Film Society in 1946. In 1958, the East Pakistan Children's Film Society was formed in dhaka. A film club was set up in Dhaka in 1962 at the initiative of the East Pakistan chapter of the Pakistan Film Producers Association with Kalim Sharafi as its general secretary. The Students Film Federation was formed at the university of dhaka in March 1963. These societies were short-lived and their activities very limited.
The formation of Pakistan Film Society on 25 October 1963 set in motion a real movement. Until 1969, it had no president. Then the renowned painter zainul abedin became its president. Anwarul Huq Khan was its general secretary till 1967. He was succeeded by alamgir kabir. After liberation the society was renamed as Bangladesh Film Society. It initiated an effective movement for the exhibition of art films, organising discussions, seminars and workshops, publication of a quality journal Dhrupadi, formation of study groups, setting up a library, starting a film cooperative, setting up a branch in chittagong, opening a branch for children, and starting a film appreciation course. It also raised a demand for state subsidy as an incentive to encourage production of healthy films and setting up of a film archive and a film institute for the same purpose.
The second cinema society of the country, the Dhaka Cine Club, was set up in 1969 at the initiative of Alamgir Kabir and Laila Samad. By 1974, as many as 15 such societies were on the scene. These societies grouped into a federation in 1973. Alamgir Kabir was made its first president. In 1980, parliament enacted a legislation providing for the registration and regulation of cine societies. This restricted the number of these societies and their activities.
The cine club movement largely influenced the growth of a sizeable class of educated and discerning viewers. Some members of these clubs also produced art films, a few among which received national and international awards.

[Anupam Hayat]

Film Festival an occasion for exhibiting films,

Film Festival an occasion for exhibiting films, holding contests for awards, exchanging views on filmmaking through discussions and seminars and for displaying publications, posters and still photographs. The world's first international film festival was held at Venice in Italy in 1932. This was followed by such festivals in Moscow (1935), Cannes (1946), Berlin (1951), Calcutta (1952) and many more places. Bangladesh has been taking part in international festivals abroad and also holding international, regional and national festivals at home. Bangladeshi films that won prizes at international festivals include Akhtar Jung Kardar's Jago Hua Savera (1959) at Moscow and Subhash Dutt's Sutarang (1965) at the Asia Festival at Frankfurt. Other films that won awards at international festivals were zahir raihan's Stop Genocide at Tashkent in 1972, Suryadighal Badi by Sheikh Neamat Ali and Masihuddin Shaker, at Mannheim in 1980, and Agami by Morshedul Islam at New Delhi. Bangladeshi films were also exhibited from time to time at the festivals at Venice, Cairo, Berlin, Cannes, Tokyo, Pnom Penh, Locarno, Karlovy Very, Duncan, Oberhousen, Pyongyang, Tehran, Beirut, Calcutta, Bombay and Colombo. Some won high praise and also prizes.
International, regional and national festivals have also been held in Bangladesh. In 1958, a children's film festival was held at Naz cinema hall in Dhaka. Soon after a German film festival was held in the city. The first international film festival at the government's initiative was at Dhaka's Balaka cinema hall in 1965, at which films of 12 nations were exhibited. Among these films were Andre Vaider's Canal (Poland), Ala Rene's Hiroshima Mon Amur (France), Satyajit Ray's Mahanagar (India). Also screened were The First Lady from USA, New Year's Sacrifice from Peoples' China, Javaren from Czechoslovakia, Hamlet from USSR, God and the Devil in the Land of the Sun from Brazil, The Pacifics from Japan, Swallows Return to their Nest from Iran and Waterless Summer from Turkey. In August 1965, the All-Pakistan Film Festival was held in Dhaka at the initiative of the Pakistan Producers Association. On the agenda were film screening, prize giving, seminars, publication of an anthology of articles, exhibition of posters and cultural events.
The 12 films from East and West Pakistan exhibited at the festival included Zahir Raihan's Kakhono Asheni and Kacher Deyal, Salahuddin's Suryasnan, khan ataur rahman's Anek Diner Chena, Rahman's Milon and Mustafiz's Talash. In the contest Kacher Deyal won as many as 9 prizes. The West Pakistani films included Shikwa, Heera Aur Patthar, Daman, Aulad, Kartar Singh and Firingi. Several festivals of films from specific countries were also held in Dhaka. Among them were festivals of Bulgarian films (1969), Egyptian films (1970), Polish films (1973), Indian films (1974), Rumanian films (1980) and Yugoslav films (1980).
The first officially organised international film festival in independent Bangladesh was held in Dhaka in March-April 1981. Thirty-five films from 15 countries were exhibited at this non-competitive festival. The films screened in the core section included Poland's The Conductor, Indonesia's Bau Hati Mama, Hungary's Magarok, India's Hirok Rajar Deshe, Japan's Port Arthur, Mongolia's Unforgettable Autumn, China's Little Flower and Bangladesh's Suryadighal Badi. The films shown in the information section included Sri Lanka's The Girls, India's Singhason and Kasturi and Pakistan's Miss Hongkong and Saika. There was a seminar also. Delegates from Indonesia, Pakistan, Thailand and India took part. A French film festival was held at Madhumita cinema hall in Dhaka in 1982. A SAARC film festival was held in Dhaka in December 1985. Eleven Bangladeshi films were exhibited in it. The Indian films included Satyajit Ray's Paras Pathar and Ghare Baire and Mrinal Sen's Khariz.
In December 1988, a festival of short films was initiated in Dhaka by the Bangladesh Forum for Short Films. The first festival attracted 154 films from 25 countries. It included Nanuk of the North, Louisiana Story, Driktars, Coalface, Stop Genocide, Rabindranath and Nazrul Islam. It has since been held every two years and has already attracted the attention of the film lovers. The Rainbow Film Society has also been holding an international film festival in Dhaka since 1992. Different film clubs, foreign diplomatic missions and the Federation of Film Societies hold festivals of foreign and local films from time to time. Several festivals of video films are also organised. All these festivals have an important role to play in producing discerning viewers and in creating a congenial situation for serious filmmakers.

[Anupam Hayat]

Film Archive

Film Archive preserves prints of films, the history of films, books, papers, motionless pictures, trailers, censor certificates, disks, cassettes, tapes, screenplays, posters, banners and other signs. Films are also exhibited there. The archive also publishes magazines, books, catalogues and bulletins. It undertakes research and surveys and organises seminars, functions and special ceremonies. The International Film Archive and UNESCO extend assistance to archives of every country.
Film Archive of Bangladesh was set up in 1978 as an organisation under the ministry of information. The designation of its chief executive is the director general (earlier the designation was curator). At the time of its foundation, the organisation was named the Bangladesh Film Institute and Archive (BFIA). In 1984, the Institute was merged with the National Mass Communications Institute to form the Film Archive with the status of an independent institution. The Film Archive started to function at a rented house in the dhanmondi area of dhaka city and its first curator was A K M Abdur Rouf. It was shifted to the Gana Bhaban area of Sher-e-Bangla Nagar in 1986 and to the Lalmatia area in 1998. The government has a plan to shift it to the Agargaon area and to build a Film Complex there.
Functions of the Film Archive are: to collect and preserve prints of films and mementos like screenplays, still pictures, books of stories and songs for films, advertisement designs, posters, banners, festoons and books and journals; record important historical events and other developments; conduct research and surveys on different aspects of social life with the help of visual techniques; and educate the masses through films. The list of collected and preserved films and mementos in the Film Archive up to December 1998 include prints of 220 feature films, negatives of 180 feature films, 150 short films, 650 documentary films, 240 news films, 2,446 books and booklets, 13,580 motionless pictures, 4,152 posters, 1,371 screenplays, 287 books of songs, 1,365 summary stories, 640 motionless pictures on festivals, 11,795 paper cuttings, 8,926 magazines, and 2,739 miscellaneous items.
The list of items preserved in the Archive includes Sukumari, the first short film (silent), produced at Dhaka in 1927-28, scenario of the first feature film (silent), The Last Kiss, produced in 1931, the first Bangla feature film, Mukh O Mukhosh (1956), print of Asia, the first film of the Bangladesh Film Development Corporation (FDC), copies of newspapers and magazines on cinema and culture like the monthly Cinema, Rupchhaya, Udayan, Shandhani, Mridanga, Chalantika, Chitrali, Ramna and Chitrakash, a reel of the film Dhruba, of which kazi nazrul islam was one of the directors and in which he himself was an actor, and Debdas directed by Promathesh Barua. Prints of the world famous films The Battleship Potemkin, October, The Mother, The Voyages of Fear, Rashomon, Pather Pachali, and Apur Shangshar and films on the war of liberation of Bangladesh are also in the collection.
The Archive organises exhibitions, discussion meetings, seminars and courses on film reviewing. The first course was conducted in August 1981. The syllabi of these short-term and theoretical courses include the history of films, criticism, aesthetics, editing, screenplay and art direction. Noted alumni are Morshedul Islam (produced films titled Agami, Dhaka, Dipu No. 2, Dukhai), Tanvir Mokammel (Huliya, Nadir Nam Madhumati, Chitra Nadir Padey), and Akhtaruzzaman (Princess Tina Khan, Poka Makoder Gharbasati), who are prominent among the country's serious filmmakers.
The Film Archive organised a number of film festivals and noted among them are the Indian Film Festival (1984), SAARC Film Festival (1985), German Film Festival (1987), The Soviet Union Film Festival (1988) and the Chinese Film Festival (1991). Eminent film personalities from different countries visit the Film Archive and many of them deliver lectures at seminars and workshops organised by it.
[Anupam Hayat]

Group Theatre Movement

Group Theatre Movement an organised theatre movement that began in the 1950's but gained greater impetus after the war of liberation. It was set up by educated and conscious cultural activists and students of colleges and universities. The group theatre movement made theatre a vehicle for education, culture and awakening. Consequently, it brought about changes in the themes of the plays and in their presentation and style of acting.
The concept of group theatre basically developed outside Bangladesh. The Russian writer Gogol was the first to feel the need for such a movement to bring plays close to life. Stanislavsky successfully applied this concept towards the beginning of the 20th century when his Art Theatre group brought about a substantial transformation in theatre. Its influence spread to Europe and even to the United States. From the twenties to the forties, Elia Kazan's the Group Theatre in USA and Unity Theatre in London stirred the world of theatre. The concept of group theatre came to India through the Indian People's Theatre (IPT) in the forties. New plays inspired by this movement of this stream such as Nabanna, Chhenda Tar and Ulukhagda created a stir among theatre-going audiences in Kolkata.
The group theatre movement started in dhaka in the fifties when the educated youth of Dhaka University established drama circle in 1956 under the leadership of Syed Maksudus Saleheen, Abu Zafar Obaidullah Khan, Taufiq Aziz Khan and bazlul karim. Drama Circle showed new ideas in selecting and staging plays. Among the plays staged by the group were Kabar, Manchitra, Keu Kichhu Balte Pare Na, Raktakarabi, Bahipir and Kalbela. In 1968 Zia Hyder and Ataur Rahman established nagarik natya sampraday in Dhaka. They were joined later by Ali Zaker, Sara Amin and Asaduzzaman Noor. This group staged Buda Shaliker Ghade Ron (1972) and Baki Itihas (1973). It also started charging regular admission fees. Other plays staged by the group were Sat Manuser Khonje, Bidagdha Ramanikul O Taila Sangkat, Dewan Gazir Kissa, Nuruldiner Sarajiban and Bhenpute Behag.
The group theatre movement encouraged every member to participate in various theatre activities: acting, writing, producing, directing, stage decoration, costume designing as well as organisational activities. This trend extended to the activities of natyachakra (1972) and bahubachan (1972). The group theatre movement was consolidated through Natyachakra under the leadership of M Hamid. The young workers of the group not only acted in plays, but also wrote and produced them. Among the successful plays staged by the group were Explosive O Mul Samsya, Revolution, Samrat O Pratibandhi, Biday Monalisa and Pendulamer Khun. Bahubachan under Farhad Mazhar staged Prajapatir Lilalasya, Sabhapati Balben, Sade Satsho Singha and Nandita Narake. Two experienced actors, Abdullah Al Mamun and Ramendu Mazumdar, set up Theatre in 1972. The first play staged by the group was Munier Chowdhury's Kabar. Theatre also published the country's first and regular theatrical journal, Theater (1972). Among the well-known plays produced by it were Subachan Nirbasane, Ekhan Dussamay and Kokilara. The aranyak group (1972), established under the leadership of Mamunur Rashid, produced Ora Kadam Ali, Iblish and Guinea Pig. Nasiruddin Yusuf's dhaka theatre (1973) added a new dimension to writing and producing plays based on folk culture. The productions of this group included Muntasir Fantasy, Shakuntala, Kittankhola, Phanimansa, Hat Hadai and Yaibati Kanyar Man. In 1980 this group took the initiative to organise Gram Theatre in different parts of the country.
Other theatre groups which have been contributing to the group theatre movement are the Dhaka-based groups, nandanik (1977), padatik (1978), lokanatya dal (1981), Dhaka Drama (1985), Mahakal (1983), Dhaka Natyadal (1975); the Chittagong-based tirjak (1974), ganayan (1975), arindam (1975), Kanak (1982); the Rajshahi-based anushilan (1979), Rajshahi Theatre (1985); the Kushtia-based ananya (1979); the Sylhet-based sandhani; the Barisal-based shabdabali (1981); the Comilla-based janantik (1978); the Gaibandha-based Padaksep (1986); and the Khulna-based khulna theatre (1981).
In 1980 Ramendu Mazumdar and others set up the bangladesh group theatre federation. In August 1981 the federation held its first annual conference, participated in by 67 theatre groups. In the 15th Annual National Conference of the Federation in September 1999, 175 theatre groups participated. Since its establishment, the federation has been playing a distinct role in promoting and coordinating theatrical activities in the country. [Anupam Hayat]

Mitra, Kalyan (1939-?)

Mitra, Kalyan (1939-?) actor, director and playwright, was born in kushtia in 1939. Although he lived in a mofussil town he earned fame because of his devotion to the theatre.
Kalyan Mitra wrote plays on family and social life. During the 1950s and 1960s many of his plays were staged and broadcast on radio. During the war of liberation in 1971, his play series, Jallader Darbare, and playlet, Mirjafarer Rojnamacha, broadcast from the swadhin bangla betar kendra became a source of inspiration for people.
Kalyan Mitra
Among his other plays are Dayi Ke (1960), Shapath (1967), Shubha Bibaha (1967), Pradipshikha (1967), Kuyasha Kanna (1967), Ananya (1967), Triratna (1967), Sagar Sencha Manik (1968), Taka Ana Pai (1968), Pasher Badi, Baiji, Lalon Fakir (1977), and Surya Mahal.
In 1972 Kalyan Mitra received the Bangla Academy Award for playwriting. He was also awarded a prize by the Prabaha Natya Gosthi, Dhaka. [Anupam Hayat]

Karim, AKM Bazlul (1932-1977).

Karim, AKM Bazlul (1932-1977) actor, director, theatre activist and translator, was born in comilla on 23 March 1932. Bazlul Karim passed his Ms from Dhaka University. While at the university he became interested in drama. He acted in Nildarpan (1955), Parihas Bijlipitam (1956) and Keu Kichhu Balte Pare Na (1956), staged in the Curzon Hall under the initiative of the Central Students' Union and sangskriti sangsad of Dhaka University.
Bazlul Karim took an active role in establishing theatre organisations, in directing and producing plays and in translating foreign plays. He was one of the founder members of drama circle (1956), the first group theatre in Bangladesh. In 1963 he went abroad. He returned to the country in 1973 and revitalized Drama Circle. Among the plays that he translated and directed are Sabai Amar Chhele (1959), King Oedipas (1962), Kalbela (1962), Arms and the Man (1963 &1973), Sapta Surer Thibi Akraman (1963) and Dantonr Mrtyu (1977). [Anupam Hayat]

Coastal Zone Management

Coastal Zone Management coastal zone is a geographically delineated area which is distinctly characterized by the aggregation of interacting coastal environments and corresponding natural and man-made structural systems. Its management is essentially a 'production function' that combines inputs to produce desired outputs. The coastal zone of Bangladesh lies within the tropical zone between 21-23° N and 89-93° E. The coast of Bangladesh is about 700 km long and can be broadly divided into three regions: the deltaic eastern region (Pacific type), the deltaic central region, and the stable deltaic western region (Atlantic type). It is characterized by a vast network of rivers (24,000 km in length) covering an area of 9380 km2, a large number of islands between channels, a submarine canyon (Swatch of no Ground), the funnel shaped part of the northern bay of bengal, huge amount of sediment transportation (annually about 2.4 x 109 m tons), low relief (1.2-4.5 m above mean sea level) and horrendous tropical cyclones.
The coastal zone of Bangladesh is rich in natural resources offering many tangible and intangible benefits to the nation. The mangroves (around 570,000 ha with spectacular wildlife and wide biodiversity), fisheries (> 80% of total marine catch with 28 species of shrimps and 187 species of fish), shrimp culture activities (around 11,500 ha of the coastal area), tourism (Cox's Bazar with 145 km long beach offers attractive place for sea, sand and sun), shipping and inland navigations, ship breaking, oil and gas exploration, etc are some examples of these benefits. There are strong interaction between components of the natural systems (ecotones and gradients), between users and ecosystems; and between various users. Nevertheless, its natural resources face multiple and critical problems including non-sustainable resource uses and natural calamities, set within a human context of wide-spread poverty.
There is a lack of integration of environmental considerations in planning resulting in the absence for a truly integrated coastal zone management (ICZM). Untrammeled privatization of coastal land has posed problems for the environment. Excessive fishing and overexploitation of coastal resources, water quality deterioration, mangrove destruction for shrimp pond excavation, lack of public awareness and rampant rural poverty, institutional and legal limitations, cyclones, etc. are some of the major problems which need to be addressed on a priority basis.
[Apurba Krishna Deb]

Ahmad, Farrukh (1918-1974).

Ahmad, Farrukh (1918-1974) poet and writer, was born in Majhail village of sreepur upazila of magura district. His father, Khan Sahib Syed Hatem Ali, was a Police Inspector. Farrukh Ahmad matriculated from Khulna Zila School in 1937 and did his IA from Ripon College, Kolkata in 1939. Then he enrolled at Scottish Church College to study BA (Hons) in Philosophy and English Literature, but was unable to complete his studies.
Farrukh Ahmad served in the office of the IG Prisons for a few years and in the Civil Supply Department in Kolkata. From 1945, he began editing the monthly mohammadi. After partition in 1947 he came to Dhaka and joined the Dhaka Centre of Radio Pakistan as a staff artiste. Here he directed the popular weekly programme for children, Khelaghar.
As a student, Farrukh Ahmad had been attracted to the radical humanism of manabendra nath roy and had participated in leftist politics.
Farrukh AhmadCurtesy: SA Hannan
From the forties, however, he supported the pakistan movement. Despite his Pakistani and Islamic ideals, he supported the language movement in 1952 and, later, the liberation war of Bangladesh
Farrukh Ahmad became famous for 'Lash', a poem written on the 1944 famine. Farrukh Ahmad's poems are inspired by Pakistani and Islamic ideals. They explore the glory of Muslim culture and call for a Muslim awakening. His poems reflect the Arab and Persian legacy in Bengal and are replete with Arabic and Persian words. He also wrote satirical poems and sonnets. Among his poetical works are Satsagarer Majhi (1944), Sirazam Munira (1952), Naufel O Hatem (1961), Muhurter Kavita (1963), Hatemtayi (1966), Habida Marur Kahini (1981), etc. His works for children include Pakhir Basa (1965), Harafer Chhada (1970), Chhadar Asar (1970) etc. He died in Dhaka on 19 October 1974.
In recognition of his literary contribution he was awarded the Bangla Academy Award (1960), President's Award for Pride of Performance (1961), Adamjee Prize (1966), UNESCO Prize (1966), Ekushey Padak (posthumously, 1977) and Svadhinata Puraskar (posthumously, 1980). [Anik Mahmud]

Nivedita, Sister

Nivedita, Sister (1867-1911) social worker and humanist. Eldest daughter of Samuel Noble, an Irish Congregational minister, her real name was Margarett Elizabeth Noble. From a very early age she is said to have showed a spiritual and philosophical bent of mind. Educated at Halifax College, she opened her own 'Ruskin School' in Wimbledon in 1892 and led a very active social, intellectual, and literary life. Her search for 'Truth' brought her into contact with Swami vivekananda in London in 1895-96. Being convinced of the high philosophical value of the Vedanta, she accepted Vivekananda as her guru and came to Calcutta on 28 January 1898. On 25 March, Vivekananda initiated her to the Ramakrsna Order and named her Nivedita or The Dedicated.
Nivedita committed herself to the task of improving the conditions of womenfolk in Bengal. She opened a school for girls at Calcutta in November 1898, went to the USA in July 1899, and spent a year there lecturing and raising funds for her school.
After Vivekananda's death in July 1902, Nivedita resigned from the Ramakrsna Order and shifted her mind from spiritualism to anti-colonial movement. During her stay in England from 1907 to 1909, she kept working for this goal. She returned to India in July 1909 and died on 13 October 1911 at Darjeeling. [Anil Baran Ray]

Satgaon known as Saptagram (meaning seven villages) in ancient times

Bipradas pipilai, writing in 1493-94, gave the first account of the city of Satgaon (Saptagram). There were rows of well-decorated houses in which the Hindus worshipped idols with musical accompaniment. There were several groups of Muslims including the Mughals and the Pathans. But Bipradas did not refer to the port. By the early sixteenth century, tome pires, the Portuguese writer from Malacca, had referred to the port of Satgaon as a good one with good entrance. He mentioned ten thousand inhabitants. The two Bengali poets, Vrndaban Das and Jayananda, referred to the prosperity of Saptagram. They mentioned the existence of many rich merchants. Some of their houses had enclosing walls, lofty doorways and the windows were decorated with glass. Basudev Ghos, a contemporary of Chaitanya, mentioned different professional people at Saptagram. Among the merchants, there were Subarna Baniks (gold merchants), Gandha Baniks (perfume merchants) and Kansa Baniks (metal merchants).
In the Kulaji book of the Subarna Banik, generally of doubtful validity, the Karjana Samaj of Saptagram has been mentioned. It was stated that Sultan Alauddin. HUSAIN SHAH had oppressed the merchants of the Samaj. A statement of Tome Pires supported this. A little later the Karjana Samaj was split, possibly after the arrival of the portuguese in Bengal, on the question of association with them. In 1535, Sultan Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah had given permission to the Portuguese to establish factories at Satgaon and Chittagong. They established the factories around 1555. Despite the political anarchy created by the invasions of sher shah and humayun, in 1567 caesar frederick saw thirty to thirty-five ships in front of Satgaon.
But the big ships of the Portuguese were unloading the goods at Bettore and transferring these by smaller boats to Satgaon. This seemed to have continued for some time. Around 1575, the French traveller Vincent Le Blanc found the prices to be low at the market of Satgaon. He saw the worship in the temples, with music playing. Even around 1583, ralph fitch found Satgaon a prosperous city, by which time the Portuguese had established the port of Hughli. But Satgaon was still functioning as a port. In 1622 the English factors at Patna reported the arrival of Portuguese boats from Satgaon with goods from Southeast Asia. After the Mughal conquest of Hughli in 1632, the customs office was transferred from Satgaon to Hughli, which signified the fall of the port of Satgaon. The comment of the Bengali poet mukundaram chakravarti around 1594 would show that the Bengali merchants of Saptagram were not going overseas.
rakhaldas bandyopadhyay divided the city into several wards between Trisbigha and Bansberia on the basis of profession. From the ruins, it seems that the nobles occupied the southern bank of the Saraswati. The French traveller was staying in the house of such a noble not far from the market. The Vaisnavas appeared to have settled their monasteries in the west on the southern bank. It seems plausible that the later immigrants began to occupy the northern bank of the river. Sultan Alauddin Hussain Shah had built a bridge for their convenience in 1505. From the sketches of the Portuguese, it seems clear that the city, after moving towards the east on the southern bank, began to take a sharp turn towards the south parallel to the river and then suddenly veered towards the east to the Bhagirathi. From the account of the French traveller it seems that the city was able to reach the Bhagirathi, thus creating an octagonal shape. One therefore sees three movements of the city. The earlier one was running parallel to the river towards the west, hugging the southern bank. The second, perhaps occurring immediately afterwards, was the movement towards the south running parallel to the river. The last one was the movement towards the east, when the city had left the river to move towards the Bhagirathi. This may suggest the gradual silting of the Saraswati, particularly in its lower reaches, and the greater flow of traffic in the Bhagirathi.
The second half of the sixteenth century saw the crisis gradually enveloping the city. The transfer of the capital of gaur towards tandah and then to rajmahal on the other bank followed by the grueling Mughal-Afghan contest had robbed the port of Satgaon of its rich hinterland and the consumption centres. By that time the Portuguese pirates, in association with those of Arakan, were almost controlling the Bhagirathi river mouth, and this affected trade and the city. The silting of the Saraswati must have been pronounced by this time, when the Portuguese decided to found Hughli directly on the Bhagirathi. After 1632, trade had shifted to Hughli, leaving the port fairly deserted.
The city of Saptagram however continued to linger as a centre for the production of paper and other crafts till the early nineteenth century. The Dutch traveller Stavornius had mentioned the city in 1769-70, while the Dutch officials had found the city deserted enough at the end of the eighteenth century to have their outings there from the nearby town of Chinsurah. After the desertion of the city, some parts like Bansberia began to rise, sponsored by semi-independent zamindars.
Historians had generally attributed the decline of Saptagram to the silting of the Saraswati. It seems that the decline was caused more by the invasions of Sher Shah and Humayun in 1538 and the Mughal-Afghan contest beginning in 1575 that dislocated the trade nexus. The silting of the Saraswati was a long process, lasting perhaps several centuries, starting from the second half of the fifteenth century, the high-water mark of the prosperity of the city. The decline however took place at a quicker pace, caused more by the growing political anarchy.
The rise of Saptagram had not occurred under court patronage. The cosmopolitan character of the city, even under the crisis, would show the city to be without a distinct communal, religious or racial character. It had emerged due to the conjunction of the market forces of the times and it died more due to political exigencies that had coalesced to sponsor the rise of another nearby port city, Hughli, on the principal flow of the Bhagirathi. With the end of the Sultanate in Bengal, Satgaon gradually lost its moorings. [Aniruddha Ray and Md Akhtaruzzaman]
Bibliography DG Crawford, 'Satgaon or Triveni', Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, III, 1909; RD Banerji, 'Saptagram or Satgaon', Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, V, 7, 1909; Aniruddha Ray, 'Morphology of Medieval Saptagram or Satgaon', Journal of Bengal Art, 4, Dhaka, 1999. (2nd of 2nd Part)