In the twelfth century production of sculptures continued to be as prolific as in the preceding one.

In the twelfth century production of sculptures continued to be as prolific as in the preceding one. It would therefore be very difficult to discuss even the century's masterpieces. Here only a few would be mentioned for a general appreciation of the Pala-Sena style in its final phase. The Varendra Research Museum preserves, among many others, some of the finest examples of the sculptures of this phase, including the image of Shiva, Sadashiva (fig 15), Surya, Kartikeya (fig 16), and Syama Tata - all coming from different districts of north Bengal. The Avalokiteshvara of the West Bengal State Archaeological Museum, and the Brahma and the Khasarpana Avalokiteshvara of the Indian Museum, and hailing from same north Bengal, are also remarkable examples of the art at its most matured expression. The development in the south Bihar was similar, so far as emphasis on ornamentation and fulsome figures are concerned, though a slight variation may however be noted in several figures showing longish forms with a sharp bend at the waist.
The Khasarpana Avalokiteshvara from Nalanda and now in the Nalanda Museum is an instance of the style. Other remarkable sculptures from the region revealing the style in its best are the bronze trinity of Buddha, Avalokitesvara and Maitreya, found at Fatepur, now in Bodhgaya Site Museum, and the Lokanatha from Kurkihar, and preserved in the Patna Museum. Two images, one of the Mahisasuramardini, from the Hoogly district in West Bengal, and in the Asutosh Museum, and the other of the Garuda, from Rajshahi and in the Indian Museum, are remarkable for their distinctive accent on the bold curvacious forms, possibly bearing the imprint of the Hoysala art of Karnataka.
After the Muslim conquest of Bengal in the early thirteenth century, the defeated Senas retreated to the east of river Padma, and lingered as a royal power in the eastern most part of the country till about the middle of the century. In spite of their loss of resources, the Senas continued to encourage the art of image carving. But from the viewpoint of style, nothing new emerged in the period. Thus ends the long and varied story of the Pala-Sena sculpture as a regional East Indian style of distinction, flourishing in the early medieval period. Significantly, however, the style of the art spread, hand in hand with the Mahayana-Tantrayana Buddhism, much beyond the Bengal borders to continue and develop in Nepal and Tibet in the north, Myanmar and Thailand in the east and Sri Lanka and Indonesia in the south. (16 of 16)
[Asok K Bhattacharya]

This large image, which comes from Sankarbandha near Ramapal in the Dhaka district, is represented with weapon wielding ten hands

This large image, which comes from Sankarbandha near Ramapal in the Dhaka district, is represented with weapon wielding ten hands, which are swinging in the dancing rhythm of the god. Its elaborate backing and pedestal are also conceptually rich. These two forms of dancing images of Siva-Nataraja and Ganesa lead us into the twelfth century art of Bengal.
The twelfth century images, irrespective of their being in stone or bronze, represent the last and final phase of the East Indian sculpture. The style of this phase is an extension, elaboration and proliferation of that of the eleventh century. But a change in aesthetic emphasis is recognized in the style, effected chiefly by a political phenomenon that had serious impact on the socio-political life of the people of Bengal. In the beginning of the century the Senas, who hailed from Karnataka, displaced the Palas as rulers from the most parts of Bengal proper. They brought with them the orthodox social and religious practices of the Brahmanical faith; and as its result images of the Puranic deities, such as Visnu, Shiva, Shakti, Surya and Ganesha were numerously produced. Besides, several minor deities like Kartikeya, Sarasvati, Manasa and Ganga were given importance. Brahma, once a major divinity, was represented, too. All these images, as also those of the Mahayana-Tantrayana Buddhist gods and goddesses, introduced certain new composition of forms. But their stylistic distinction from those of the eleventh century's are marked not that much in the shapes of the images as in their overburdening ornamentation. The elaborate and overwhelming decorative motifs on the pedestal and the aureole became so dominating that the principal figure, the deity itself, appeared subservient to them.
The aureoles were now covered with the attending divinities, lion-on-elephants, swans, kinnaras and kinnaris, gandharvas and gandharvis, and finally at the top by the kirtimukha, a face of a mythical animal. The Senas, who were accustomed to it in their homeland Karnataka, introduced the last member kirtimukha in the Bengal art as a decorative feature. Occasionally architectural motifs, such as the façade of a temple or a stupa came to occupy the aureoles. The pedestals also grew more ornate and ratha projections increased in number, ranging from five to eleven. Undulating creepers and reptiles were introduced to cover the faces of the ratha planes, and in between their coils appeared floral as well as anthropomorphic forms. As a result the pedestals of multi-planes lost their sharp angles and became semi-circular in shape. But a more interesting change is noted in the cutting out of the backstone along the contour of the figure of the main deity, effecting fully rounded plastic forms in place of high reliefs, and succeeding in turning the aureole to a real halo or prabhamandala by providing for a light from behind. This device, initiated possibly in the late eleventh century, gave the images of the final phase a new stylistic dimension. (15 0f 16)

Though the lineal development of Bengal sculpture is best understood with the help of the Buddha and the Visnu images

Though the lineal development of Bengal sculpture is best understood with the help of the Buddha and the Visnu images as found in different centres of art in Bihar and Bengal, they represent mostly a single compositional type, that is of samapda or strictly frontal vertical form. But there are representations of other images, as of the Buddhist goddess Marichi or the Brahmanical goddess Mahisasuramardini, which show figures in diagonal pose, while the images of Yashoda and Krishna (?), also known as sadyajata or new born, and of Anantashayi-Visnu or Visnu lying on the snake Ananta represent examples of horizontal compositions. It is possible to witness other still more sophisticated forms, which include such images as of the Tantric-Buddhist deity Vajratara in the collection of Indian Museum. From the aesthetic viewpoint more significant however are the dancing figures of Ganesha and Shiva-Nataraja. An example of the former from the collection of Asutosh Museum, found at Hajinagar, Rajshahi, shows an excellent combination of curvacious modelling, rhythmic movement and flowing contour lines.
But still more interesting seems to be the Siva-Nataraja, both in concept and executional refinement. Most of the Shiva-Nataraja (fig 14) images have been found in the districts of Dhaka and Tippera in south-east extreme of Bengal. These images stand in contrast with those of south Indian Natarajas. Here the god is dancing in a soft cadence on his vehicle bull, who is also dancing in the corresponding rhythm of his Master, while the south Indian Nataraja dances in tandava, pressing under his feet the evil form of Apasmara. A supreme example of Siva-Nataraja, inscriptionally designated as Nattesvara, of Bengal version is now in the National Museum, Dhaka. (14 of 16)

The most significant Buddhist image, belonging however to the early eleventh century, comes from Mainamati-Dedvaparvata

But the most significant Buddhist image, belonging however to the early eleventh century, comes from Mainamati-Dedvaparvata (fig 13). The image in bronze is a colossal representation of the Bodhisattva-Vajrasattva, being 1.5 m high even in sitting position. It is the largest and possibly the best-preserved metal sculpture so far discovered in eastern India. In its anatomical proportions of the body, balanced pose of the hands and perfect geometrical composition the Vajrasattva is a remarkable creation, combining in one the previous experiences of Nalanda and Jhewari. With equal emphasis on plain surface, as of the body, and ornamentation, as of the crown and pendent earrings, the image stands between the classical and medieval ideals. It is one of the supreme expressions of Bengal's plastic art. From a contemporary bronze head of a life-size Bodhisattva-Avalokiteshvara image from the same site it seems that the Mainamati artist was a master in the cire perdue or hollow casting technique of bronze.
While the ninth and tenth century Pala sculptures thrived on the ideals of the Gupta classical art, from the eleventh century the art of Bengal began to show marked stylistic changes by introducing new features on the persons of the deities and their pedestals and aureoles. Though not divorced from the experiences of the two preceding centuries, they actually evolved a new aesthetic vision which has been termed the "medieval style" in the parlance of the art historians. The sculptures of the style relied more on decorative elements than the principal objects, and as a result they became more and more overwhelmed by the increasing number of subsidiary figures, boldly carved ornaments on them and multitude of motifs on pedestals and aureoles, especially as time passed from the eleventh to the twelfth century.
The bronzes of the eleventh century represent the medieval style in its early maturity, by exhibiting dexterously cast and chiselled figures and decorative elements. For instance, the crowned Buddha images, standing in protecting gesture on a double-petalled lotus based on a pancharartha pedestal and surrounded by an halo with stylized flame-motifs all along on its border, provide an archetype for the images of medieval Bengal style. What is significant is that the Buddha-type as evolved in the days of Vigrahapala III in south Bihar set norms also for the Vishnus in bronze found from different parts of Bengal proper. Two bronze Vishnus, both of the eleventh century and now in the Asutosh Museum, one from Sagardhighi in Murshidabad district and the other from Rangpur in north Bengal, may be cited as examples. But still more interesting is a silver Visnu from Sonarang in Vikrampur, Bangladesh, now in the Indian Museum, showing more elaborate and complicated decorative elements achieved in a skill rare even among the immaculately executed metal images of eastern India. (13 of 16)

While most of the Nalanda bronze Buddhas wear the upper robe covering both the shoulders, the Jhewari Buddhas (fig 12) leave their right shoulders bar

While most of the Nalanda bronze Buddhas wear the upper robe covering both the shoulders, the Jhewari Buddhas (fig 12) leave their right shoulders bare. The robes of the Nalanda images are with striations, while that of the Jhewari examples is diaphanous. Besides, the sharp nose, plastically treated arch of the brows, the half-closed eyes and sensitive leaps of the countenance of Jhewari Buddhas are points of departure. The treatment of the hairline in a separate plastic layer from that of the forehead, prominent nippers and incised double-curved line of the wrapping of the lower robe are other distinctive features. Altogether these Buddhas add, both formally and aesthetically, a new idiom to the representation of the Master. (12 of 16)

One from Tapan in West Dinajpur and another from Ghatnagar Porsha in Rajshahi (fig 10), both in the Varendra Research Museum

One from Tapan in West Dinajpur and another from Ghatnagar Porsha in Rajshahi (fig 10), both in the Varendra Research Museum, open up a new compositional diversion. Same may be said about another image of the same museum, showing Laksmi-Narayana in a pose not unlike that of Uma-Maheshvara. The Laksmi-Narayana couple (H. 24.4 cm) from Ehnail, West Dinajpur (fig 11), in their softly modelled embracing composition represents one of the most impressive sculptures of the century.
In comparison the Uma-Maheshvara (H. 35 cm) from Boram in the Purulia district of West Bengal, and preserved in the State Archaeological Museum in Calcutta, shows a distinctively different style. Here the God and the Goddess are also in an embracing position but in a detached mood befitting of a divine couple. But an interesting aspect of the image is its dichotomy in style. While the Maheshvara is presented with stance and features of the post-Gupta norms, the Uma is in the form of a woman of local ethnic type with wide-open eyes. In Bengal sculptures presence of the local popular trend is however found throughout the Pala-Sena period. Another interesting collection of the West Bengal State Archaeological Museum is the Kartikeya, found in the Kalikamora village in West Dinajpur. The god along with his vehicle peacock, on which he flies, is modelled in extreme pliability, as if not in black stone but clay, and moves lively in an informal way.
Tenth-century Bengal is also rich in Buddhist sculptures, both in stone and bronze, possibly more in bronze than stone. An interesting stone image of a Buddha in earth-touching pose (H. 69 cm), now in the State Archaeological Museum in Calcutta, comes from Bareya in the Nadia district. It shows the Master in the post-Gupta proportions but with an elaborate aureole, which represents five dhyani Buddhas above and two Bodhisattvas on two sides. What is significant is the conical shape of the usnisa crowned by a stupa-like object. This peculiarity of Buddha head is a typical development in the Pala period and the type of image later travelled from Bengal to Myanmar and Thailand.
Though some bronze Buddhas have appeared in different places of north Bengal, the important centre of it was southeast Bengal, which was known as Samatata or Harikela. The country was ruled from the middle of the 8th to the middle of the 11th centuries by two successive dynasties, Deva and Chandra, the kings of which were devout Buddhists. Archaeological discoveries at Mainamati-Devaparvata in Comilla district have revealed a number of Buddhist monasteries and stupas, as also a large quantity of terracotta plaques and stone and bronze images. Most of the bronze Buddhas of the site, generally small in size, show a physiognomic type with a weird look representing a popular art ideal.
Jhewari, a village about 16 km south-southeast from the city of Chittagang, is known for yielding a hoard of bronze sculptures consisting of sixty-one Buddhist images. These images were cast between the late 7th and the middle of the 11th centuries, but majority of them was of the 10th. They therefore represent the second phase of Buddhist bronzes, if we regard the early ninth century Nalanda bronzes associated with the Pala king Devapala as of the first phase. The Jhewari Buddhas are of three distinct stylistic types. The first type, represented by standing Buddha in diaphanous robes and protecting gesture, is unmistakably of the Sarnath style. The second type Buddhas are of the same popular style as the above-described Mainamati Buddhas. In the third type we find the stamp of the genius of the Chittagang artists, for they present one of the most exquisite Buddha forms ever cast or carved. The type shows the Master in his earth-touching pose, seated on a cushion. The finest examples of the type bear certain physical and stylistic features that make them distinct from their Nalanda counterparts. (11 of 16)